PCI Express (PCIe) has been around since 2003, and in that time it has managed to become the primary data interconnect for not only expansion cards, but also high-speed external devices. What also makes PCIe interesting is that it replaces the widespread use of parallel buses with serial links. Instead of having a bus with a common medium (traces) to which multiple devices connect, PCIe uses a root complex that directly connects to PCIe end points.

This is similar to how Ethernet originally used a bus configuration, with a common backbone (coax cable), but modern Ethernet (starting in the 90s) moved to a point-to-point configuration, assisted by switches to allow for dynamic switching between which points (devices) are connected. PCIe also offers the ability to add switches which allows more than one PCIe end point (a device or part of a device) to share a PCIe link (called a ‘lane’).

This change from a parallel bus to serial links simplifies the topology a lot compared to ISA or PCI where communication time had to be shared with other PCI devices on the bus and only half-duplex operation was possible. The ability to bundle multiple lanes to provide less or more bandwidth to specific ports or devices has meant that there was no need for a specialized graphics card slot, using e.g. an x16 PCIe slot with 16 lanes. It does however mean we’re using serial links that run at many GHz and must be implmented as differential pairs to protect signal integrity.

This all may seem a bit beyond the means of the average hobbyist, but there are still ways to have fun with PCIe hacking even if they do not involve breadboarding 7400-logic chips and debugging with a 100 MHz budget oscilloscope, like with ISA buses.

High Clocks Demand Differential Pairs

PCIe version 1.0 increases the maximum transfer rate when compared to 32-bit PCI from 133 MB/s to 250 MB/s. This is roughly the same as a PCI-X 64-bit connection (at 133 MHz) if four lanes are used (~1,064 MB/s). Here the PCIe lanes are clocked at 2.5 GHz, with differential signaling send/receive pairs within each lane for full-duplex operation.

Today, PCIe 4 is slowly becoming adopted as more and more systems are upgraded. This version of the standard runs at 16 GHz, and the already released PCIe version 5 is clocked at 32 GHz. Although this means a lot of bandwidth (>31 GB/s for an x16 PCIe 4 link), it comes with the cost of generating these rapid transitions, keeping these data links full, and keeping the data intact for more than a few millimeters. That requires a few interesting technologies, primarily differential signaling and SerDes.

Differential signaling is commonly used in many communication protocols, including RS-422, IEA-485, Ethernet (via twisted-pair wiring), DisplayPort, HDMI and USB, as well as on PCBs, where the connection between the Ethernet PHY and magnetics is implemented as differential pairs. Each side of the pair conducts the same …read more

Source:: Hackaday